Position and appearance
The Moon's highest altitude at culmination varies by its lunar phase, or more correctly its orbital position, and time of the year, or more correctly the position of the Earth's axis. The full moon is highest in the sky during winter and lowest during summer (for each hemisphere respectively), with its altitude changing towards dark moon to the opposite.
At the North and South Poles the Moon is 24 hours above the horizon for two weeks every tropical month (about 27.3 days), comparable to the polar day of the tropical year. Zooplankton in the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end.[198]
The apparent orientation of the Moon depends on its position in the sky and the hemisphere of the Earth from which it is being viewed. In the northern hemisphere it appears upside down compared to the view from the southern hemisphere.[199] Sometimes the "horns" of a crescent moon appear to be pointing more upwards than sideways. This phenomenon is called a wet moon and occurs more frequently in the tropics.[200]
The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) (perigee) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) (apogee), making the Moon's distance and apparent size fluctuate up to 14%.[201][202] On average the Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52°, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses). In addition, a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion, makes the Moon appear larger when close to the horizon.[203]
The tidally locked synchronous rotation of the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards the planet. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite the far side. The far side is often inaccurately called the "dark side", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. During dark moon to new moon, the near side is dark.[204]
The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth.[205] With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998-99 NASA Lunar Prospector mission, found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.[206]
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Jakarta, CNBC Indonesia - Merger tiga bank syariah BUMN yakni PT Bank BRISyariah Tbk (BRIS), PT Bank Syariah Mandiri (BSM) dan PT Bank BNI Syariah (BNI) membawa saham BRIS terus melesat.
BRIS akan menjadi bank hasil penggabungan (surviving entity) dalam merger tiga bank syariah BUMN ini.
Data perdagangan BEI mencatat, saham BRIS sudah naik dalam 1 bulan terakhir secara akumulatif sebesar 86%, 3 bulan terakhir melesat 184%, dan dalam 6 bulan terakhir saham BRIS meroket 591%.
Sejak awal tahun hingga perdagangan Rabu kemarin (21/10/2020), atau year to date, saham BRIS melesat 322,73% dengan kapitalisasi pasar Rp 13,55 triliun.
Meski demikian, pada perdagangan Rabu kemarin, saham BRIS akhirnya terkoreksi setelah berhari-hari terus mencetak kenaikan signifikan.
Saham BRIS ditutup minus 7% atau menyentuh batas bawah, auto reject bawah (ARB), minus 7% di level Rp 1.395/saham.
Nilai transaksi saham BRIS kemarin mencapai Rp 811,08 miliar dan volume perdagangan 557,15 juta saham.
BRIS tercatat di papan perdagangan BEI pada 9 Mei 2018 dengan harga penawaran umum saham perdana (initial public offering/IPO) Rp 510/saham.
Saat itu, dengan menawarkan 2,62 miliar saham baru atau 27% dari modal yang disetor penuh, maka BRIS mendapatkan dana segar sebesar Rp 1,33 triliun.
Dengan harga saham BRIS ke level Rp 1.395/saham, maka harga BRIS 175% melesat dari harga IPO-nya.
Mari kita ilustrasikan perhitungan keuntungan saham BRIS.
1. Misalnya, katakanlah si A, punya bujet Rp 10 juta. Dengan dana tersebut, dia berhasil membeli 196 lot (19.600 saham, 1 lot isi 100 saham) BRIS saat IPO di harga Rp 510/saham.
Kini, setelah 2 tahun lebih IPO berlalu, harga saham BRIS berada di level Rp 1.359/saham, atau nilai saham si A tersebut sudah naik menjadi Rp 27 juta, atau cuan Rp 17 juta.
2. Misalnya si B, punya dana Rp 10 juta. Dia berhasil membeli saham BRIS saat ambles di Mei lalu yang berada di level terendah Rp 189/saham, dengan jumlah saham mencapai 52.910 setara modal Rp 10 juta tadi.
Pada awal-awal Oktober lalu, harga saham BRIS mencetak level tertinggi di posisi Rp 1.500/saham atau nilainya menjadi Rp 79,37 juta atau jika si B tersebut tidak melepas porsi sahamnya, maka untung Rp 69,37 juta dari harga terendah Rp 189/saham.
Terkait dengan merger ini, PT Bank Mandiri Tbk (BMRI) akan menjadi pemegang saham mayoritas dari BRIS, sebagai bank hasil penggabungan (surviving entity) dengan kepemilikan sebesar 51%.
Komposisi pemegang saham pada lainnya adalah PT Bank Negara Indonesia Tbk. (BBNI) 25,0%, PT Bank Rakyat Indonesia Tbk (BBRI) 17,4%, DPLK BRI - Saham Syariah 2% dan publik 4,4%.
Bank yang akan bergabung dengan Bank BRISyariah dalam mega merger bank syariah BUMN yakni PT Bank Syariah Mandiri (BSM) dan PT Bank BNI Syariah.
Ketua Project Management Office Integrasi (PMO) dan Peningkatan Nilai Bank Syariah BUMN Hery Gunardi mengatakan total aset bank hasil penggabungan ini nantinya akan mencapai Rp 215,6 triliun dengan modal inti lebih dari Rp 20,4 triliun.
Dengan demikian bank hasil penggabungan akan masuk ke dalam TOP 10 bank terbesar di Indonesia dari sisi aset dan TOP 10 bank syariah terbesar di dunia dari sisi kapitalisasi pasar.
Bank hasil penggabungan akan tetap menjadi perusahaan terbuka dan tercatat di Bursa Efek Indonesia dengan ticker code (kode saham) BRIS.
"Integrasi ini lebih dari sekadar corporate action. Mengawal dan membesarkan bank syariah terbesar di negeri ini sesungguhnya adalah amanah yang besar," Hery dalam siaran persnya, Rabu (21/10/2200).
Kepala Riset Samuel Sekuritas Indonesia, Suria Dharma mengatakan, koreksi harga saham BRI sempat terjadi karena kenaikan harga yang terlalu cepat, sehingga koreksi ini merupakan hal yang wajar.
"Naiknya kecepetan. Kan turun cuma bisa 7% [ARB], naik bisa di atas 25% [ARA]," kata Suria, di Jakarta.
Suria menjelaskan, kemungkinan tidak akan terjadi tender offer (penawaran untuk membeli saham publik oleh pengendali baru) setelah terjadi merger tiga bank syariah BUMN ini.
Meskipun ada perubahan pemegang saham pengendali yang sama-saham BUMN, yakni dari PT Bank Rakyat Indonesia Tbk (BBRI) ke PT Bank Mandiri Tbk (BMRI).
Perubahan pemegang saham pengendali terjadi karena nilai aset yang disetorkan PT Bank Mandiri Tbk (BMRI), induk usaha BSM, nilainya lebih besar dari nilai aset BRIS.
Nilai aset BSM mencapai Rp 112,1 triliun, BNI Syariah Rp 49,97 triliun, dan BRIS Rp 51,8 triliun.
"Kayanya sih ngga ada tender offer. Pemerintah biasanya ada justifikasinya," jelas Suria.
Saksikan video di bawah ini:
Coordination and regulation
Increasing human activity at the Moon has raised the need for coordination to safeguard international and commercial lunar activity. Issues from cooperation to mere coordination, through for example the development of a shared Lunar time, have been raised.
In particular the establishment of an international or United Nations regulatory regime for lunar human activity has been called for by the Moon Treaty and suggested through an Implementation Agreement,[265][267] but remains contentious. Current lunar programs are multilateral, with the US-led Artemis program and the China-led International Lunar Research Station. For broader international cooperation and coordination the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), the Moon Village Association (MVA) and more generally the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) has been established.
Since pre-historic times people have taken note of the Moon's phases and its waxing and waning cycle, and used it to keep record of time. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.[221][321][322] The counting of the days between the Moon's phases gave eventually rise to generalized time periods of lunar cycles as months, and possibly of its phases as weeks.[323]
The words for the month in a range of different languages carry this relation between the period of the month and the Moon etymologically. The English month as well as moon, and its cognates in other Indo-European languages (e.g. the Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn), meaning "month")[324][325][326][327] stem from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root of moon, *méh1nōt, derived from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. the English words measure and menstrual).[328][329][330] To give another example from a different language family, the Chinese language uses the same word (月) for moon as well as for month, which furthermore can be found in the symbols for the word week (星期).
This lunar timekeeping gave rise to the historically dominant, but varied, lunisolar calendars. The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.[331]
Of particular significance has been the occasion of full moon, highlighted and celebrated in a range of calendars and cultures, an example being the Buddhist Vesak. The full moon around the southern or northern autumnal equinox is often called the harvest moon and is celebrated with festivities such as the Harvest Moon Festival of the Chinese lunar calendar, its second most important celebration after the Chinese lunisolar Lunar New Year.[332]
Furthermore, association of time with the Moon can also be found in religion, such as the ancient Egyptian temporal and lunar deity Khonsu.
Cartographic resources
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Moon Treaty and explorational absence (1976–1990)
Following the last Soviet mission to the Moon of 1976, there was little further lunar exploration for fourteen years. Astronautics had shifted its focus towards the exploration of the inner (e.g. Venera program) and outer (e.g. Pioneer 10, 1972) Solar System planets, but also towards Earth orbit, developing and continuously operating, beside communication satellites, Earth observation satellites (e.g. Landsat program, 1972), space telescopes and particularly space stations (e.g. Salyut program, 1971).
Negotiation in 1979 of Moon treaty, and its subsequent ratification in 1984 was the only major activity regarding the Moon until 1990.
First missions to the Moon (1959–1976)
After World War II the first launch systems were developed and by the end of the 1950s they reached capabilities that allowed the Soviet Union and the United States to launch spacecraft into space. The Cold War fueled a closely followed development of launch systems by the two states, resulting in the so-called Space Race and its later phase the Moon Race, accelerating efforts and interest in exploration of the Moon.
After the first spaceflight of Sputnik 1 in 1957 during International Geophysical Year the spacecraft of the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals. Following three unnamed failed missions in 1958,[244] the first human-made object Luna 1 escaped Earth's gravity and passed near the Moon in 1959. Later that year the first human-made object Luna 2 reached the Moon's surface by intentionally impacting. By the end of the year Luna 3 reached as the first human-made object the normally occluded far side of the Moon, taking the first photographs of it. The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966.[72]
Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a crewed Moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Ranger program, the Lunar Orbiter program and the Surveyor program. The crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing, in 1968 Apollo 8 made the first human mission to lunar orbit (the first Earthlings, two tortoises, had circled the Moon three months earlier on the Soviet Union's Zond 5, followed by turtles on Zond 6).
The first time a person landed on the Moon and any extraterrestrial body was when Neil Armstrong, the commander of the American mission Apollo 11, set foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on July 21, 1969.[245] Considered the culmination of the Space Race,[246] an estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.[247][248] While at the same time another mission, the robotic sample return mission Luna 15 by the Soviet Union had been in orbit around the Moon, becoming together with Apollo 11 the first ever case of two extraterrestrial missions being conducted at the same time.
The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples.[249] Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations,[250][251] but as the stations' lunar laser ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used.[252] Apollo 17 in 1972 remains the last crewed mission to the Moon. Explorer 49 in 1973 was the last dedicated U.S. probe to the Moon until the 1990s.
The Soviet Union continued sending robotic missions to the Moon until 1976, deploying in 1970 with Luna 17 the first remote controlled rover Lunokhod 1 on an extraterrestrial surface, and collecting and returning 0.3 kg of rock and soil samples with three Luna sample return missions (Luna 16 in 1970, Luna 20 in 1972, and Luna 24 in 1976).[253]
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